Four related problems that currently exist in the concept of EF
What Is EF?: The Lack of an Operational Definition
Executive function is defined as the ability to maintain an appropriate problem-solving set for attainment of a future goal.
a) an intention to inhibit a response or to defer it to a later more appropriate time
b) a strategic plan of action sequences
c) a mental representation of the task including the relevant stimulus information encoded in memory and the desired future goal-state.
The executive functions consist of those capacities that enable a person to engage successfully in independent purposive self-serving behavior
Questions about executive functions ask how and whether a person goes about doing something e.g. Will you do it and if so how?)
Questions about cognitive functions are generally phrased in terms of what or how much e.g. How much do you know? What can you do?)
EF Four components
- 1) volition
- 2) planning
- 3) purposive action
- 4) effective performance
The term “executive functioning” generally refers to the mechanisms by which performance is optimized in situations requiring the operation of a number of cognitive processes
Executive function is required when effective new plans of action must be formulated and appropriate sequences of responses must be selected and scheduled.
Executive functions Activities
problem-solving
The executive functions are a collection of processes that are responsible for guiding directing and managing cognitive emotional and behavioral functions particularly during active novel problem solving
The term executive function represents an umbrella construct that includes a collection of inter-related functions that are responsible for purposeful goal-directed problem-solving behavior
- planning
- initiation” of activity
- cognitive estimation
- prospective memory
Executive function EF) is an umbrella term that incorporates a collection of inter-related processes responsible for purposeful goal-directed behavior
Processes associated with EF are numerous but the principal elements include
- anticipation
- goal selection
- planning
- initiation of activity
- self-regulation
- mental flexibility
- deployment of attention
- utilization of feedback
Executive functions refer to a collection of interrelated cognitive and behavioral skills that are responsible for purposeful goal-directed activity and include the highest level of human functioning such as
- intellect
- thought
- self-control
- social interaction
Executive functions comprise a family of cognitive control processes that operate on lower-level processes to regulate and shape behavior.
EF involves developing and implementing an approach to performing a task that is not habitually performed
The early development of skills that support EF includes the ability to maintain problem-solving set for attainment of future goal
- encompasses an individual’s ability to inhibit actions
- restrain and delay responses
- attend selectivity
- self-regulate
- problem solve
- be flexible
- set goals
- plan
- shift set
Executive functioning has been defined as a set of regulatory processes necessary for
- selecting
- initiating
- implementing
- overseeing thought
- emotion
- behavior
- certain facets of motor and sensory functions
Executive function can be thought of as the set of abilities required to effort fully
Guide behavior toward a goal especially in non routine situations
Various functions are thought to fall under the rubric of executive function
- include prioritizing and sequencing behavior
- inhibiting familiar and stereotyped behaviors
- creating and maintaining an idea of what task or information is most relevant for current purposes
- providing resistance to information that is distracting or task irrelevant
- switching behavior task goals
- utilizing relevant information in support of decision making
- categorizing or otherwise abstracting common elements across items
- handling novel information or situations
Why is maintaining an appropriate problem-solving set toward a future goal considered to be the essential nature of EF?
Wouldn’t it be more precise and simpler to just make these three components part of the definition of EF itself?
EF is the inhibition of a response or its deferral to a more appropriate time so as
- 1. develop a mental representation of the task and desired future goal
- 2. develop a strategic plan of actions and sequences to attain it
- 3. maintain an appropriate problem solving set toward that future goal
Why is it that detecting and responding to an X on a computer screen while inhibiting a response to an O is an executive function test while reading an X when it appears is not?
Why is stating the color of ink in which a color word i.e. “red”) is printed considered an executive function but reading the actual printed word is not?
Why is pointing to a location where a picture or geometric design appeared in a matrix after it has disappeared for a few seconds an indication of EF while pointing to the same design in the matrix while it is still present is not an EF?
Why is sorting cards into categories based on your own sorting rule not an EF while sorting them so as to discover an examiner’s undis sorting rule is considered an EF?
Six components of EF
- self-regulation
- sequencing of behavior
- flexibility
- response inhibition
- planning
- organization of behavior
Not EF
- visual–spatial perception
- speech and language
- emotion
- motor speed and coordination
How Is EF Assessed?: The Poor Ecological Validity of Psychometric Tests of EF
The following current situation in this field represents this error
- The PFC is the “executive” brain
- ADHD is a disorder arising largely from structural and functional abnormalities in the PFC
- ADHD is largely not a disorder of EF
How Does EF Work?: The Limitations of Current Cognitive Models of EF
The Disparity between Models of EF and Deficits in Patients with PFC Disorders
A Sampling of Theories of PFC EF) Functioning –
1. Stuss and Benson’s Hierarchical Model of EF –
- Executive control functions called into action in non routine or novel situations provide conscious direction to the functional systems for efficient processing of information
The executive function represents many of the important activities that are almost universally attributed to the frontal lobes which become active in non routine novel situations that require new solutions
These behavioral characteristics have been described by many authors and include at least the following: anticipation goal selection pre planning means-end establishment) monitoring and use of feedback if–then statements)
EF refers to four components
- anticipation
- goal selection
- pre planning
- monitoring
- Sequencing
is said to be involved in organizing and maintaining bits of information into meaningful sequences such as in the temporal integration and sequencing of behavior
Non executive posterior basal functional systems
- attention
- alertness
- visual–spatial
- autonomic emotional
- memory
- sensory perception
- language
- motor
- cognition
2. Fuster’s Theory of Cross-Temporal Organization –
Three PFC components
- 1) working memory which is a temporally retrospective function;
2) anticipatory set planning) which is a temporally prospective function
3) interference control a form of attention that involves resistance to distraction) which inhibits the disruption of goal-directed behavior by events or behavior that are irrelevant to or incompatible with the goal
purpose of these three EF components
- “the cross-temporal organization of behavior
achieved by a temporal synthesis or integration that represents the “formation of temporal structures of behavior with a unifying purpose or goal—in other words the structuring of goal-directed behavior
includes in his concept of EF the self-regulation of motivational emotional and other drive states in the service of goal-directed behavior
Model of PFC EF
- need to appreciate that goal-directed actions often involve significant delays among events E)
responses R)
goals and their attendant consequences G C).
done by mentally representing the E-RG C arrangement
Goal-directed behavior is achieved through the guidance of behavior by these internal representations
representations arise from his three components
3. Duncan’s Theory of Goal Neglect
- a. human behavior is organized around a list of goals and sub goals against which individuals are comparing their ongoing behavior to maintain behavior directed at these goals
b. Frontal lobe damage results in an inability to retain these goals in mind and thus greater disorganization of behavior
Information-Processing Theory of EF
EF as a set of three components
- problem solving
- task analysis essentially defining the problem)
- strategy selection and revision
- strategy monitoring
three components of cognition:
- cognition
- metacognition
- executive functioning
Cognition
- Cognition is all the knowledge and strategies that exist in long-term memory; this reservoirof information is critical to effective problem solving. The metacognitive levelis aware of this lower level and contains models of the various cognitive processesas well as an understanding of how knowledge and strategies interconnect. Executivefunctioning coordinates these two levels of cognition by monitoring and controllingthe use of the knowledge and strategies in concordance with the metacognitive level
IDEAL problem solver
- 1) identify an important problem tobe solved
- 2) define the subgoals involved in solving the problem
- 3) explorethe possible approaches to the problem select a potential set of strategies)
- 4) anticipate potential outcomes before acting on the best initial approach
- 5) look back and learn from the entire problem-solving experience
planning
planning and problem solving may be synonymous terms althoughplanning seems to also include a longer-term future consideration than mightproblem solving which can be applied to much more near-term problems
4. Hayes Behavioral Theory of EF as Rule-Governed Behavior
EF tasks place people in situations wherepreviously learned sources of behavioral regulation come into conflict with ruleslaid down by the task and examiner
Those task-specific rules are competingwith behavior that is otherwise automatic and well practiced
the typicalautomatic flow of behavior must be interrupted and delayed long enough forthe person to discover a new rule or select among previously learned rulesthat may apply in this situation
interrupting a well-practiced behavior itselfoften requires that a rule be selected and followed that is initiating the delay inresponding
EF tasks individuals often have to implement a rule toinhibit their usual ongoing responding even if it is just asking them a questionabout the task
They must then either select from among a set of relevantpreviously learned rules or generate a new one
augmenting is also neededwhere verbal self-reinforcement 3 –
is also used formotivation as in phrases such as “good boy ” or self-statements of being rightor being good in following the rule 3 –
Sings of PFC injuries or disorders
- devastating behavioral
- social deficit
- emotional deficit
- economic deficit
- occupational deficit
- moral deficits deficit
Example
how are we to see any connection between how patients performa digit span backward N-back serial addition or other task ofverbal working memory and their economic life in their natural settings?
Humans daily engage in reciprocal exchange and must frequently andrapidly evaluate the costs-benefits to them of doing so as each party tothe transaction goes about pursuing their actions toward their futuregoals no matter whether the exchange involves money goods or services
This is the field of economics broadly defined. Yet where does thiswidespread human goal-directed activity ever enter into modern viewsof EF?
fundamental basis of morality
awareness of one’s self over time in relation to others and the future consequencesof one’s actions toward others and of others’ toward one’s self
This daily intersection of each human’s goal-directed activities amongthose of other goal-directed humans requires rules ethics) for makingsuch activities run as smoothly and peaceably as possible
Four factors-EF Tasks
- 1. flexibility perseveration or set shifting)
- 2. perceptual–motorspeed probably not an EF)
- 3. verbal working memory
- 4. time estimation
Four-factor model of EF
- 1) attentional control includesinhibition)
2) information processing fluency efficiency and speed ofoutput)
3) cognitive flexibility shift response sets learn from mistakes devise alternative strategies divide attention process multiple sources ofinformation concurrently);
4) goal setting develop new initiativesand concepts plan actions in advance approach tasks in an efficient andstrategic manner)
The Missing Linkage between EF and Social Functioning
social intelligence
- the capacity to respond to appropriate social patterns to regulate social life and to integrate adequately and successfully with others
As one of its major functions the frontal lobe bears responsibility foradministering the code by which the patterns of social behavior are putinto operation and by which the individual integrates and regulates its conductin respect of that of other individuals. We postulated that there is aspecial form of social intelligence by which the organism maintains therunning changing stream of social relationships and that the frontal lobesbear important if not unique responsibility for this
Social Executors
- 1) social self-regulation: processes needed tomanage the initiation rate intensity and duration of social interactions
2) social self-awareness: knowledge and insight about oneself and theimpact of one’s behavior on others in social settings
3) social sensitivity:the ability to understand another’s perspective point of view oremotional state similar to empathy)
4) social salience: regulationof somatic and emotional states that impart a sense of meaningfulnessto social situations and to specific individuals within that situation
The Overlooked Importance of Emotion and Motivation in EF
The neglect of emotion may also stem from the inherently greaterdifficulty in measuring emotional and motivational states relative to theenormous number of tests available for assessing the more “cognitive”features of EF such as working memory
Emotions are motivationalstates that undoubtedly play an important role in evaluating and determiningone’s means actions) and ends goals) and their social appropriateness
They will also contribute the drive willpower or self-motivation that will be needed to achieve them –
The supposedly “cool” EF brainnetworks such as working memory planning problem solving andforesight may provide for the “what where and when” of goal-directedaction but it is the “hot” EF brain network –
provides the “why” or basis for choosing topursue that goal in the first place and the motivation that will be neededto get there –
The Limitations of the Computer Metaphor of BrainFunctioning for EF
Using the computeras a metaphor for brain functioning has undoubtedly been of value inefforts to advance the understanding of neural circuitry and its likelyfunctions. But it has its limits for brains
First computers are designed whereashuman brains evolved; hence the architecture and functioning of eachare likely to be quite different.
Engineers designing computers candetermine the most efficient and effective designs for both hardwareand software to achieve the intended purposes to which computers areused.
Natural selection acting on brains has no such plans and foresightto use in its sculpting of the brain. Consequently a computer maybe a marvel of efficient design. But a brain is a veritable Rube Goldbergdevice of adaptations cobbled together from what had been availablefor other functions previously but that may be diverted to another functionunder a change in environmental pressure a new adaptive problem)
A second major distinction between computers and brains is thatcomputers are passive whereas human brains are not –
The computermetaphor portrays the brain as if it were software and hardware; givena certain input this “computer” moves the information through variousstages of processing to produce the output that we see virtually automatically like an automaton industrial robot or artificial intelligence creation. –
The computermetaphor portrays the brain as if it were software and hardware; givena certain input this “computer” moves the information through variousstages of processing to produce the output that we see virtually automatically like an automaton industrial robot or artificial intelligence creation.This is a very passive view of the organism devoid of what makesliving things unique—they are self-interested agents! They have basicmotives preinstalled that serve to sustain their own life appetitive anddefensive protective motives) and to reproduce that is to transmit theirgenes) into the next generation sexuality and competition for mates) –
This blindness to self-interestedness and its motives is a glaring deficiencyin contemporary EF models. A computer is not a self-interested self-motivating self-regulating entity; a human brain is
The Installation of a “Central Executive” or Homunculus in EF:The Ghost in the Machine
The Missing “Self” in EF –
- The conscious self IS the central executive
Each of us develops a conscious senseof self and it is this conscious self that is serving as the executive
It isthrough our self-awareness self-consciousness that our values and wantsare consciously known to us our goals values or what we wish to pursue)are chosen by us and the strategies that we will employ in thesepursuits are selected by us
Who chooses? I do
What is to be valued andpursued?
What I choose to do
How is it to be pursued?
The way I decideto do so
Freedom here does not mean random or uncorrelated decision makingbetween values goals) and their means–ends
Freedom or free willis a conscious generation of and consideration of the variety of optionsavailable to that individual over the longer term as capable of being conceivedby the individual
It also includes the selection of which goals topursue how to pursue them and when to do so
Overlooking the Bidirectional Influence of EF and Culture
People both createand adopt culture. Yet it is equally true that the existing cultureinfluences the people who are immersed within and who actively adoptit.
Why EF?: The Importance of Evolutionin the Origins and Purposes of EF
The species that have a proto-EF system also engage to a certainextent in imitation learning a form of experiential or behavioral plagiarism).
In humans in particular there is a dominantor prepotent response to overtly imitate another’s actions and itmust be actively inhibited from being publicly expressed—the neuronalfiring patterns that match the actions being watched are activated buttheir release to the musculoskeletal system is inhibited.
The capacity to use the witnessing of another’s experiences for one’sown self-improvement is a tremendously useful adaptation among socialspecies in which members compete against each other for resources
Humans also take imitation to an even higher level which is vicariouslylearning to do the opposite of what one has seen another do.
Vicarious learning is a particularly useful adaptation when it comes to learningfrom the mistakes made by others some of which can be injurious or evenlethal. It is self-evident that more learning occurs in response to errorsthan to successes.
Conclusions and Specific Aims
- 1. the term “EF” lacks an operationaldefinition that can serve to determine which human mental facultiesshould be graced with the moniker “executive” and which shouldnot
2. current theories of EF have driftedaway from capturing the characteristics of patients with PFC injuries ordisorders of this “executive” brain including their marked problems in emotional social economic and moral domains among others. Cognitive psychometrically based models of EF are common at this time
3. characterizing modern models of EF
4. evolutionary stance toward EF as an adaptation or suite ofadaptations necessary for solving problems that arose in human sociallife
major concepts
selfish gene theory
whichexplains why all living things are at their core self-interested replicators
To understand EF we will have to take the individual’s self-interests intoaccount.
What does EF do for the survival and reproductive and inclusivefitness of its owner?
Humans not only adapt to their environments as do others species but they adapt their environments to them—and they do it using EF. Such alterations to the environment can be studied for their value as part of the human EF phenotype
phenotype
Phenotypic traits have effectsthat impact not just the immediate spatial and temporal environment butthat also radiate outward from the organism
These effects may extendfar beyond the proximal physical distance and short durations typicallyconsidered in the notion of a phenotype
endopheno
those psychological functions that seemclosest to the brain’s neural activity and so are closest to the genes andtheir proteins that serve as initial and intermediate pathways respectively to the EF behavioral phenotype
human mental functions
- dailyfunctioning
- social relations
- cooperative ventures
- economic transactions
- moral
- legal
- occupational
- child-rearing
- community activities
extended phenotype
